Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), a Danish philosopher, theologian, poet, and social critic, is widely regarded as the “father of existentialism.” His ideas have had a profound impact on modern philosophy, theology, and psychology.

Kierkegaard’s work often wrestles with the concepts of individuality, subjectivity, freedom, and the role of faith. Though his writings were relatively obscure during his lifetime, they have since influenced many of the most significant intellectual movements of the 20th and 21st centuries, including existentialism, postmodernism, and Christian theology.

Early Life and Influences

Born in Copenhagen, Denmark, Kierkegaard was raised in a strict Lutheran household under the influence of his deeply religious father, Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard. His early life was marked by family tragedy, as many of his siblings died young, and his father’s heavy-handed religious expectations weighed on him throughout his youth. Kierkegaard’s father instilled in him a sense of guilt and introspection that would become central to his philosophical inquiries.

Kierkegaard studied theology at the University of Copenhagen but soon found himself drawn to philosophy and literature. Influenced by German philosophers such as G.W.F. Hegel and Immanuel Kant, as well as religious thinkers like Martin Luther, Kierkegaard sought to explore questions of faith, existence, and personal responsibility. His intellectual trajectory was also shaped by his tumultuous relationship with Regine Olsen, whom he loved deeply but ultimately chose not to marry, believing that a life of marriage would conflict with his philosophical calling.

Core Concepts of Kierkegaard’s Philosophy

Kierkegaard’s philosophy is deeply concerned with the individual and the subjective nature of human experience. His writings emphasize personal choice, ethical responsibility, and the struggle for authenticity. Several key concepts run through his work, defining his contributions to existentialist thought.

Subjectivity and Truth

Kierkegaard famously declared, “Truth is subjectivity.” This concept is central to his critique of the prevailing philosophical trends of his time, especially Hegelianism, which prioritized objective, universal systems of knowledge. For Kierkegaard, truth is not merely a matter of detached observation or logical deduction; rather, it is something that is deeply personal and connected to one’s lived experience. He argued that objective knowledge—such as scientific facts or systematic philosophical doctrines—cannot capture the existential reality of being a human individual, which is defined by passion, commitment, and the inevitability of choice.

The Stages of Life

In his major work Either/Or (1843), Kierkegaard presents a framework for understanding human existence through what he called the “stages of life.” These stages represent different ways individuals can live their lives:

1. The Aesthetic Stage: In this stage, people are primarily motivated by pleasure, aesthetics, and personal satisfaction. They avoid commitment and responsibility, focusing instead on immediate gratification. Kierkegaard saw this stage as shallow and ultimately leading to despair.
2. The Ethical Stage: The ethical stage represents a more mature way of living, where individuals take responsibility for their actions and adhere to societal norms, moral laws, and ethical duties. In this stage, individuals recognize the importance of commitment and take their place within a structured social and moral framework.
3. The Religious Stage: The highest stage of existence, according to Kierkegaard, is the religious stage, where individuals confront the limitations of human understanding and embrace a relationship with God through faith. In this stage, one must make a “leap of faith” to transcend reason and surrender to divine will, embodying a commitment to something greater than oneself.

The Leap of Faith

Perhaps Kierkegaard’s most famous concept is the “leap of faith.” He used this term to describe the act of believing in something despite the lack of objective evidence or certainty. For Kierkegaard, this is particularly relevant to religious faith, especially in Christianity. He believed that true faith in God requires an embrace of uncertainty and paradox, such as the Christian belief in the incarnation of Christ or the idea of salvation through grace. This faith is not grounded in reason or proof but is a deeply personal commitment to the transcendent.

The leap of faith is also a response to the existential anxiety or “dread” that humans feel when confronted with the possibility of absolute freedom or nothingness. Faced with the uncertainty of existence and the limitations of rational thought, Kierkegaard saw faith as the only way to live authentically in the face of these profound challenges.

Kierkegaard’s Critique of Christendom

Much of Kierkegaard’s later work is marked by a fierce critique of organized Christianity, particularly the state-supported Lutheran Church of Denmark. He believed that Christianity had become institutionalized, losing its radical and personal demands on the individual. Kierkegaard argued that the true essence of Christianity required a personal, direct relationship with God, characterized by inward struggle and the passion of faith. He condemned the way the church made faith easy and comfortable, stripping it of its existential significance.

His scathing criticisms are perhaps most evident in his later writings, such as Attack Upon Christendom (1854–1855), where he called out the complacency of religious authorities and the way Christian doctrine had been watered down to accommodate societal norms. For Kierkegaard, genuine Christianity demanded a far more difficult and personal engagement with the teachings of Christ, particularly the need for self-denial and existential sacrifice.

Legacy and Influence

Søren Kierkegaard’s thought has had a profound and lasting impact on philosophy, theology, literature, and psychology. Though his ideas were not widely recognized during his lifetime, they gained significant traction in the 20th century, particularly with the development of existentialism, a movement associated with philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Heidegger, and Albert Camus.

Kierkegaard’s focus on individuality, freedom, and the complexities of human existence also resonated with later psychological theorists such as Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, who explored similar themes of anxiety, despair, and the search for meaning.

Kierkegaard’s writings continue to inspire and challenge readers, encouraging a deeper reflection on the nature of faith, the meaning of life, and the role of personal responsibility. His work remains a powerful testament to the importance of subjective experience in understanding human existence, as well as the existential struggle to live authentically in a world filled with uncertainty.